Lace Theory by Mary E. Jacobs

Stitch Anatomy Spring 2025

Have you ever looked at a lace chart and tried to really understand what that would produce in knitted fabric? This article will look at relationships between stitches that cause very specific phenomena in knitted fabric. The goal is to lay a foundation so that deciphering the connection between what is charted and what the knitted fabric will look like can be made, without having to cast on a single stitch.

This article utilizes the accompanying Louis and Zélie shawl pattern as a stitch dictionary to walk through these relationships.

Defining Lace

Lace is an open fabric with weblike designs created by pairing yarn over increases with decreases. Typically, stockinette stitch is the foundational fabric for lace although other stitch patterns, such as reverse stockinette, garter, and seed stitch are routinely incorporated. This article will assume stockinette stitch is the foundational fabric, as that is the fabric which best allows the eye to detect the yarn over/decrease relationships.

Even though lace is created by simple maneuvers, it is often considered one of the heights of knitting, as the level of stitch interplay is some of the most complicated relationships in knitting. Generally, a distinction is made between “knitted lace” and “lace knitting.” Knitted lace has yarn overs worked on every row, creating a very open motif, often with single strands of yarn between yarn overs. Lace knitting employs a “plain” row worked every other row, creating two strands of yarn twisted together between yarn overs. The Louis and Zélie Shawl utilizes primarily lace knitting, except for a faggot pattern bordering Chart E, which has patterning every row.

Diagonal Lines as a Foundation

One of the most important components of lace patterns is the diagonal line of yarn overs. Variations are made by how the diagonal lines are oriented, aligned, joined, or elongated, but almost every pattern contains some element of a diagonal line. Of the fourteen bands in the Louis and Zélie Shawl, only the faggot edgings and Chart C omit some form of diagonal lines. Despite the patterns utilizing diagonal lines, the fabrics are remarkably distinct due to the complex interplay of stitch relationships.

Relationship 1: Yarn Overs and Decreases—Vertical

Yarn overs are always paired with decreases. That makes sense fundamentally because if not, then the rows would either be infinitely expanding in stitch count or decreasing down to a point. The horizontal, in-row relationship between a yarn over and its paired decrease has the most stylistic consequences, which require an in-depth examination. However, often overlooked and quite misunderstood is the vertical relationship between yarn overs and decreases in rows above and below each other. The vertical relationship between yarn overs and decreases are what create compressed vs open yarn overs.

Compressed Yarn Overs and Open Yarn Overs

What happens in the rows directly above a yarn over determines if it will be compressed or open. A compressed yarn over is smaller and heavier looking and appears to be encased in thick stitches. An open yarn over is larger, lighter, and more open and appears to have two single strands of yarn twisted around it. The band labeled Chart A in Figure 2 has columns of Vs alternating between open yarn overs and compressed yarn overs. Even from a distance, one column of Vs looks larger and well defined, with the one next to it looks skimpy and less obvious.

As a rule, if there is a decrease directly above a yarn over, the yarn over will be heavier, smaller, and compressed. If there is a plain stitch or another yarn over directly above a yarn over, it will be lighter, larger, and open.

Chart A of the Louis and Zélie Shawl illustrates the vertical relationship between yarn overs and decreases and the resulting compressed and open yarn overs. Figure 4 shows a marked up version of Chart A. The green ovals highlight yarn overs that will be open. If there is a plain stitch in the patterning row above the yarn over, it will be open. For example, looking at the yarn over in Row 1, Column 5, after the plain Row 2 WS row, on the next row of patterning there is a plain stitch above the yarn over on Row 3, Column 5.

Also in Figure 4, the red ovals highlight yarn overs that will be compressed. If there is a decrease in the patterning row above the yarn over, it will be compressed. For example, looking at Row 1, Column 15, after the plain Row 2 WS row, on the next row of patterning, there is a decrease above the yarn over on Row 3, Column 15.

Figure 5 shows the knitted fabric from Figure 4’s Chart A. Note the columns of compressed Vs and open Vs. The red oval identifies a single compressed yarn over and the red arrow points toward the cause—the decrease directly above the yarn over. The green oval identifies a single open yarn over and the green arrow points to the plain stitch directly above the yarn over. Looking between the columns of compressed and open yarn overs side by side, note how much thicker the knitting is around the compressed yarn overs and what a striking visual difference there is.

It is also useful to note that it does not matter if the decrease is left- or right-slanting as to when the yarn over will be compressed or open. Figures 4 and 5 show both left and right slanting decreases, both matching and not matching the direction of the diagonal, creating both compressed and open yarn overs. What matters for a yarn over to be compressed vs open is if the decrease is directly above the yarn over.

It is most common to see open yarn overs in lace, where the decreases are situated below yarn over lines.

Relationship 2: Yarn Overs and Decreases—Horizontal: Immediate Pairing

The most common yarn over/decrease relationship is one where the yarn over and decrease are immediately paired, meaning that the increases and their paired decreases are situated right next to each other in the same row. When side by side, there is no bias in the stockinette fabric. What does come into play though is the relationship between the slant of the specific decrease and the slant of the overall yarn-over line. This interplay will result in either a visually continuous line or a visually non-continuous line of decreases.

Matching Decrease Line

Referring back to Figure 5, the aqua arrows highlight situations where the slant of the decrease matches the slant of the yarn over line and both are slanting in the same direction. In the 3rd column, where the decreases are below the yarn over, thereby creating open yarn overs, the line of decreases whose slant matches the slant of the yarn over line makes a very easy-to-see continuous line of decreases below the yarn over line. Here, the decreases look like a distinct line. In the 4th column where the decreases are above the yarn over—creating compressed yarn overs—the line of decreases whose slant matches the slant of the yarn over line makes a more muted line of decreases above the yarn over line.

Non-Matching Decrease Line

Again referring to Figure 5, the yellow arrows highlight situations where the slant of the decrease does not match the slant of the yarn over line but is in the opposite direction. In the 3rd column with open yarn overs, the line of decreases whose slant is opposite of the slant of the yarn over line makes a non-continuous line of decreases below the yarn over line. In the 4th column, where the line of decreases has a slant that is opposite of the slant of the yarn over line, it makes a non-continuous line of decreases above the yarn over line.

It is most usual to see open yarn overs in lace, thus the situations illustrated in the Open Column 3 will be seen most often.

Relationship 3: Yarn Overs and Decreases—Horizontal: Plain Stitches Between Pairing

As a rule, any stitches between a yarn over and a decrease pair will always bias or lean toward the decrease. For this reason, knit lace relies heavily upon stockinette stitch as the long vertical lines of stockinette make biasing visible. Figure 6 shows the knitted fabric of Chart F from the Louis and Zélie Shawl, and it is one of the simplest examples of this biasing phenomenon. Remember that stitches between a yarn over/decrease pair will always bias toward the decrease. In Figure 6, three plain stockinette stitches are between the yarn over/decrease pairs and the resulting zig zags, or ribbons, are made simply by switching the decrease to the right or to the left of the yarn over. Note that the stockinette stitch outside of the yarn over/decrease pairs remains unbiased.

Figure 7 shows Chart F. In order to “see” what the finished knit sample of this chart would look like, arrows were added, following the rule that plain stitches will always bias toward the decrease. This simple exercise suddenly makes the resulting pattern much easier to see in the chart, before even knitting a stitch.

But what about a more complicated pattern? Will this rule of biasing toward the decrease still hold, and can I still “see” it in the chart?

Let’s consider Chart B from the Louis and Zélie Shawl. The first step toward “seeing” what the final fabric will look like is to identify yarn over/decrease pairs. Starting at the beginning of the row, simply begin matching increases to their decreases. Referring to Figure 8a, Row 1 of Chart B begins with an ssk in Column 1, and traveling on Row 1 from right to left, in Column 6, there is a yarn over, making this a pair which has been circled. Moving across Row 1, the next stitch of note is a yarn over in Column 12, and then there is a decrease in Column 15—another pair. Simply continue in this manner, traveling along rows in the direction of the work, matching yarn overs and decreases and circling the pairs. Notice that in Figure 8a, not all the pairs have been circled … why? Refer back to the 2nd relationship with immediate pairing—when a yarn over/decrease pair is side by side, there is no bias.

The next step toward “seeing” the final fabric through the chart is to map out the direction of the bias. In Figure 8b, arrows have been drawn showing the stitches biasing toward the decrease. For Columns 1–11, the bias will be under the Vs of yarn overs moving out toward the decreases, while for Columns 12–20, the bias will be under the upside-down Vs, moving in toward the decreases. Figure 9 shows the fabric from Chart B. The Figure 9 arrows mimic the arrows drawn in Figure 8b for one repeat.

It may also be noted that the slant of the decrease does not impact the direction of the bias. Chart B, as shown in Figure 8b and knitted in Figure 9, have both left- and right-leaning decreases; what matters is the pairing of the yarn over and decrease. Plain stitches will always bias toward the decrease, no matter which direction the decrease itself slants.

Relationship 4: Yarn Overs and Decreases—Horizontal & Vertical: Delayed Pairing

Another fascinating phenomenon that further plays upon the yarn over/decrease pairing is to delay pairing until a completely different row. This changes the stitch count for the interval between when the unpaired increase or decrease appears until it rejoins its mate, thus completing the pair. Delaying paring of the yarn over/decrease across rows can serve a few purposes: First, it can allow flexibility in motif, allowing continuity or symmetry that may not be possible with a static stitch count. Second, it can give fullness to an area if the yarn over is made first and not paired until later. This is the most common scenario. Last, it can constrict an area if the decrease is made first and not paired until later, which is less common.

Chart D of the Louis and Zélie Shawl utilizes a changing stitch count by delaying pairing of increases. Referring to Figure 10a, note that the chart begins and ends with the same stitch count. Rows 1–6 and Rows 9–10 utilize a gray block, or “no stitch” symbol, as those rows of the repeat have two fewer stitches than Rows 7–8. The “no stitch” symbol serves as a place marker in the chart but is ultimately ignored when working as there is no corresponding stitch on the needles.

Figure 10b shows the yarn over/decrease pairs circled as well as the bias arrows drawn in. In Row 7, two unpaired yarn overs are made in Columns 13 and 15, respectively, as the yarn over in Column 9 pairs with the decrease in Column 5, and the yarn over in Column 19 pairs with the decrease in Column 23. In Row 9 half of the s2kp in Column 11 pairs with the Row 7, Column 13 yarn over, and half of the ks2kp in Column 17 pairs with the Row 7 Column 15 yarn over.

Figure 11 shows a close up of the knitted fabric. Notice that the unpaired yarn overs enables the symmetry of the two “yo, s2kp, yo” clusters in Row 9. Also, the extra fullness of the unpaired yarn overs in Rows 7 and 8 allow the solid plain stockinette to make a more graceful arch in toward the reverse stockinette.

Relationship 5: Yarn Overs and Decreases—Horizontal: Grouping

There are two types of grouping in knit lace that will cause a visible effect: (1) grouping together yarn overs and decreases and (2) grouping only one slant of decrease together in a motif.

Grouping Together Yarn Overs and Decreases

In a single row, grouping together increases and grouping together decreases will cause distortion in the fabric as the yarn overs will produce extra volume, and the decreases will produce a cinching in. A traditional feather and fan pattern relies upon grouping together yarn overs and decreases to create an overall wave shape in the fabric.

Figure 12 shows Chart J of the Louis and Zélie Shawl. Notice that the four yarn overs are grouped around a reverse stockinette column, flanked by double decreases on either edge. Even though this has a comparatively small grouping of yarn overs and decreases, it produces a wave effect as shown in Figure 13. Note that the wave effect on the top boarder is distorted due to the stitch pattern above it. Also of note is a separate effect of having a k3tog and an sssk flanking a single stitch. The slack from the three grouped-together stitches from both sides works itself into the single stitch, causing a unique line of single strands.

Grouping a Single Slant of Decreases Together

The slant of decreases creates direction, not only visually but physically as well. In a decrease, multiple stitches are physically pulled, stacked, and oriented in a specific direction. If a lace motif utilizes only a single slant for all its decreases and those decreases are in close enough proximity, the result will be that the entire fabric will skew in the direction of the decrease utilized. If those identically slanting deceases are stacked or close to being stacked, the skewing effect will be greater.

Relationship 6: Stitch Patterns

Knit lace typically utilizes stockinette stitch, as the long vertical lines of stockinette allow the eye to see the visual complexity of all the yarn over/decrease pairings and any biases as part of the motif. Stockinette can also be utilized plain to create motif. Looking at Figure 3, Chart H makes diamonds of yarn overs, surrounded by an outline of stockinette, while Chart I makes diamonds of plain stockinette surrounded by a field of yarn overs. Chart L utilizes plain stockinette as a backdrop for small eyelet clusters, while Chart M utilizes plain stockinette as the primary focus with a lattice of plain stockinette diamonds.

Reverse stockinette stitch tends to recede back, much like it would in rib and will introduce the mottled purls. Figures 11 and 13 provide close ups of motifs that utilize reverse stockinette. Figure 14 shows a close-up of Chart N from Figure 3 which is a very effective use of reverse stockinette. Here the reverse stockinette creates an almost carved look when flanked by lines of unbroken decreases.

Garter stitch and seed stitch will provide a very textured fabric that lies flat. In Figure 2, Chart G utilizes a small field of garter stitch, which is very effective at pushing against the stockinette stitch, causing the stockinette to arch instead of making a straight diagonal.

An Adventure

Knit lace is truly an adventure full of relationships that create many visual opportunities. Understanding the foundational relationships between stitches will not only allow you to more effectively understand what a chart will produce but will also allow for ideas to be transcribed into knitting.

Bibliography

Bush, Nancy. Knitted Lace of Estonia: Techniques, Patterns, and Traditions. Interweave Press, 2008.

Don, Sarah. The Art of Shetland Lace. Lacis Publications, 1980.

Estin, Donna. “Complex Lace.” Cast On, Spring 2021.

Gonzalez, Leslie. “Demystifying the Yarn Over/Decrease Relationship in Lace.”
Cast On, Nov. 2014–Jan. 2015.

Khmeleva, Galina. The Gossamer Webs Design Collection: Three Orenburg Shawls to Knit. Interweave Press, 2000.

Lewis, Susanna E. Knitting Lace: A Workshop with Patterns and Projects. Schoolhouse Press, 2009.

Lovick, Elizabeth. The Magic of Shetland Lace Knitting. St. Martin’s Press, 2013.

McAdam Cahill, Celia. “Increasing and Decreasing in Lace.” Cast On, Nov. 2014–Jan. 2015.

Schwan, Binka. “Multi-Stitch Decreases.” Cast On, Summer 2019.

Stove, Margaret. Wrapped in Lace: Knitted Heirloom Designs from Around the World. Interweave Press, 2010.

Swansen, Meg. A Gathering of Lace. XRX, Inc., 2000.

Thomas, Mary. Mary Thomas’s Book of Knitting Patterns. Dover Publications, 1972.

Vance, Carolyn. “Lace: The Dainty Doily.” Cast On, Feb.–Apr. 2014.

West, Debbie. “Yarn Overs in Creating Lace.” Cast On, Spring 2023.

Pattern Associated with Article — Louis and Zélie Shawl

Return to Table of Contents

Download Article